Timeline of the Twelve Emperors

Augustus (27 BC – AD 14)

31 BC

Victory at Actium, defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra

27 BC

First constitutional settlement

Octavian granted title Augustus

Marks the beginning of the Principate.

Res Gestae: claims restoration of the Republic , masking monarchy.

Velleius Paterculus hails Augustus as a great restorer (89.3)

23 BC

Second constitutional settlement

Augustus receives tribunicia potestas and maius imperium.

Critical sources (Tacitus and Dio) suggest the beginning of true autonomy

12 BC

Becomes pontifex maximus - chief priest of Rome

Res Gestae: "I am Pontifex Maximus"

9 BC

Altar of Peace (Ara Pacis) dedicated

Propaganda of peace and prosperity.

4 AD

Adoption of Tiberius

Forced after loss of heirs to early death

14 AD

Death of Augustus. T

Tacitus records ambiguous legacy — peace at cost of liberty.

Tiberius (AD 14 – 37)

AD 14

Accession; initially appears reluctant

Mutinies in Pannonia and Germany - Germanicus earns his popularity through crushing revolts

AD 17

Germanicus celebrated with triumph.

AD 19

Death of Germanicus in Syria.

Tacitus insinuates the death being a result of Tiberius’ machinations - Tiberius used Piso as the scapegoat, yet modern historians stress uncertainty.

AD 23

Death of Drusus; rise of Sejanus.

AD 27

Tiberius retires to Capri.

Tacitus: moral and political decay; Suetonius sensationalises depravity

Sources portray Tiberius letting all matters of state slide

AD 31

Fall and execution of Sejanus.

Terror intensifies via Maiestas trials.

AD 37

Death of Tiberius.

Tacitus details a grim reign marked by fear - senate thrown into a state of unprecedented

Caligula (AD 37 – 41)

AD 37

Accession welcomed enthusiastically. Early generosity and popularity.

Son of Germanicus - popular amongst senate and plebs

Links to Agrippa

AD 38

Roughly 7 months into his reign, develops a severe illness which leads to a sharp change in behaviour

AD 39–40

Alleged extravagance and autocracy (horse Incitatus, divine honours).

Sources hostile; exaggeration likely.

AD 41

Assassinated by Praetorians.

Senate briefly debates restoring Republic.

Claudius (AD 41 – 54)

AD 41

Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard.

Tacitus emphasises military role in accession.

Early aureus showing handshake between Praetorian guard and Claudius

AD 43

Invasion of Britain, marking a major military success.

AD 48

Execution of Messalina for alleged conspiracy.

AD 49

Marriage to Agrippina the Younger.

AD 50

Adoption of Nero over Britannicus.

AD 54

Death (likely poisoning).

Tacitus: palace intrigue decisive.

Nero (AD 54 – 68)

54–59 AD

Early good rule under Seneca and Burrus (quinquennium Neronis).

59 AD

Murder of Agrippina. Tacitus: moral turning point.

62 AD

Death of Burrus; Seneca withdraws.

AD 64

Great Fire of Rome. Nero blamed; persecution of Christians (Tacitus Annals 15).

AD 65

Pisonian Conspiracy → wave of executions.

AD 68

Revolts of Vindex and Galba.

Nero commits suicide → end of Julio-Claudians.

Galba (AD 68 – 69)

Alienates Praetorians; financial austerity.

Murdered in Rome.

Otho (69 AD)

Defeated by Vitellius’ forces. Commits suicide — praised by Tacitus as honourable.

Vitellius (69 AD)

Indulgent, weak leadership (Suetonius). Defeated by eastern legions.

Vespasian (AD 69 – 79)

AD 69

Proclaimed emperor by eastern armies.

AD 70

Fall of Jerusalem (by Titus).

Josephus provides Jewish perspective.

AD 71

Triumph in Rome; Flavian legitimacy asserted. AD 75 Temple of Peace built. AD 79 Death of Vespasian — stable, pragmatic ruler. Titus (AD 79 – 81) AD 79 Eruption of Vesuvius (Pliny the Younger eyewitness). AD 80 Colosseum inaugurated. AD 81 Dies suddenly; widely mourned. Domitian (AD 81 – 96) AD 83–85 German and Dacian campaigns. AD 89 Revolt of Saturninus. AD 90s Autocratic rule; dominus et deus. Tacitus and Pliny hostile; administrative efficiency acknowledged. AD 96 Assassinated in palace conspiracy. Senate passes damnatio memoriae.